Jongmin Park
Doctoral Student
School of Journalism
University of Missouri-Columbia
Fritz Cropp
Assistant Professor
School of Journalism
University of Missouri-Columbia
A paper presented to the ISSSS Anual Conference, Seoul, South Korea,
November, 1998.
Abstract
Q methodology was used to ascertain journalists’ perceptions
of the criteria for ethical reporting. Three types of journalists emerged:
Source-oriented objectivists emphasize fairness and accuracy in journalistic
reports. Ascetic utilitarians believe that conscientious action as an individual
is the most important criterion for journalistic ethics. Civic journalists
think journalists should include in their decisions efforts to benefit
society as a whole. This paper will address similarities and differences
among the three types and their implications.
1. Introduction
Many journalists believe that objectivity is the foundation of
good journalism and every effort must be made to ensure that news content
is accurate and free from bias with all sides presented fairly. Moreover,
some journalists contend that not only news reports but also editorials,
analytical articles and commentaries should be held to the same standards
of accuracy and fairness with respect to facts as news reports.
Objectivity refers to an essential correspondence between knowledge
of a thing and the thing itself. The best translation of the term into
its journalistic application may have been furnished by the Freedom of
the Press Commission, commonly known as the Hutchins Commission, in 1947.
The commission said that the press owes to society “a truthful, comprehensive,
and intelligent account of the day’s events in a context which gives them
meaning.” (McDonald, 1975, p.69 )
Yet, is journalistic objectivity possible? Many people will dispute
the above question. Why do journalists have to passively observe social
phenomena ? After all, as human beings, they too are members of a social
group. As such, they can be participants, not mere observers of social
problems. Also, if journalists can rule out the eccentricities of judgment,
they can describe social phenomena with their own subjective viewpoints.
Even if journalists can explain social situations, they should
be free from bias. Granted that it is impossible for journalists to report
facts with total objectivity, they should not hesitate in reporting accurately
and fairly. Journalistic subjectivity is different from the unconscious
and conscious biases that are included in news. Fink (1988, p. 18) commented
on the journalist’s unconscious and personal influence.
True objectivity is impossible to achieve. Each of us is shaped
by background and experiences that inevitably influence how we see things
and act as journalists. That influence cannot be denied; but objectivity
is a worthwhile goal, and as an ethical journalist you must recognize the
very human tendency to let personal feelings influence your reporting and
writing.
The reporter, the reader, the viewer, the conventions of journalism,
the forms and the processes of communication institutions, language, and
the investigative and interpretive functions of the reporter, all affect
the objectivity of mass communication (McDonald, 1975, p. 70) Furthermore,
the unconscious biases in news that journalists might not realize originate
from external variables such as political pressure, commercial pressure,
self-censorship, deadlines, and technological limits (Jamieson, and Campbell,
1985).
Biases are journalists’ common enemy. News must be based on both
accurate and fair facts and journalists’ conscientious and conscious subjectivity.
Whenever journalists report the news, however, they face a dilemma. They
must use their personal judgment, act as professionals, serve the
community and society, and give their loyalty to the news corporation.
All these duties cannot be carried out in perfect harmony. This quandary
is the starting point of this study.
Each journalist has his/her own answers to solve such a dilemma.
Some believe their professional intuition and others respect their public
service to the community. Therefore, the research question posed is:
What types of journalistic attitudes are there concerning the criteria
for ethical reporting?
The categories for each group will be determined through analysis
of the patterns of attitudes concerning the principles for ethical reporting.
The approach used in this study is interpretive and subjective.
The interpretive approach of studying journalistic ethical criteria will
provide the theoretical basis of this study. More specifically, using Q-methodology,
the study will examine the socio-psychological attitudes of journalists
toward their criteria for ethical reporting.
2. Journalists’ codes of ethics
Ethics is based on the Greek word “ethos,” meaning character,
or what a good person is or does in order to have a good character. In
general, ethics deals with the philosophical foundations of decision-making,
of choosing between the good andbad options that one faces based
on moral principles. Ethics may be seen as being concerned with those
things that hold society together or that provide the stability and security
essential to living. Ethics as a branch of philosophy involves thinking
about morality, moral problems, and moral judgments (Black and Bryant,
1992, p. 580).
What is journalistic ethics? Journalists have an ethical obligation
to tell the truth. “Accuracy” is emphasized in every news reporting class.
Some scholars contend that objectivity evolved from journalists imitating
the scientific method during the first part of the 20th century (Goodwin
and Smith, 1994, p.7). Many people say that journalists have to report
news accurately, fairly, and objectively. Which one is the most important
ethical rule for journalists?
In A Free and Responsible Press, Robert Maynard Hutchins
argued about journalists’ duties. He perceives their duties as follows:
to provide a “truthful, comprehensive account of the day’s events in
a context which gives them meaning”;
to serve as a “forum for the exchange of comment and criticism”;
to offer a “representative picture of the constituent groups of society”;
to present and clarify the “goals and values of society” and
to provide “full access to the day’s intelligence.”
Peterson insisted that the major premise of the social responsibility
theory, which is based on the Hutchins Commision report, is that “freedom
carries concomitant obligations; and the press, which enjoys a privileged
position under our government, is obliged to be responsible to society
for carrying out certain essential functions of mass communications in
contemporary society (1973, pp.74-78).”
Milton, in his 1644 publication, Areopagitica, assumed “self-righting
principle” that truth would prevail over falsehood in the free marketplace
of ideas. According to the libertarian theory, the press can be irresponsible
as well as responsible, printing falsehood as well as truth, because citizens
are rational and can separate truth from falsehood. The rationale
behind the libertarian theory is that in a free marketplace of ideas where
all voices can be heard, the truth will surely emerge (Goodwin and Smith,
1994, p. 16). However, Peterson (1973, p.77) insists: “But somewhere along
the way, faith diminished in the optimistic notion that virtually absolute
freedom and the nature of man carried built-in correctives for the press.”
Nowadays, most journalists as well as other members of society
do not believe in the “self-righting process of truth” in the “free marketplace
of ideas.” Even those who believe that freedom of the press is more
important than social responsibility believe that the journalists’ professional
duties are indispensable because of the nature of the job.
The Society of Professional Journalists believes the duty of
journalists is to serve the truth and declare the acceptance of the standards
of journalistic practice. Their code of ethics are as follows:
1). Responsibility
The public’s right to know of events of public importance and interest
is the overriding mission of the mass media.
2). Freedom of the Press
Freedom of the press is to be guarded as an inalienable right of people
in a free society.
3). Ethics
a. Secondary employment, political involvement, holding public office,
and service in community organizations should be avoided if it compromises
the integrity of journalists and their employers.
e. Journalists acknowledge the newsman’s ethic of protecting confidential
sources of information.
4). Accuracy and Objectivity
a. Truth is our ultimate goal.
b. Objectivity in reporting the news is another goal that serves as
the mark of an experienced professional.
c. There is no excuse for inaccuracies or lack of thoroughness.
5). Fair Play
a. The news media should not communicate unofficial charges affecting
reputation or moral character without giving the accused a chance to reply.
b. The news media must guard against invading a person’s right to privacy.
c. The media should not pander to morbid curiosity about details of
vice and crime.
d. It is the duty of news media to make prompt and complete correction
of their errors.
e. Journalists should be accountable to the public for their reports
and the public should be encouraged to voice its grievances against the
media. Open dialogue with our readers, viewers, and listeners should be
fostered.
The Radio-Television News Directors Association believes that
the responsibility of radio and television journalists is to gather and
report information of importance and interest to the public accurately,
honestly, and impartially. They will also:
1). Strive to present the source or nature of broadcast news material
in a way that is balanced, accurate and fair.
a. They will evaluate information solely on its merits as news,
rejecting sensationalism or misleading emphasis in any form.
b. They will guard against using audio or video material in a way that
deceives the audience.
c. They will not mislead the public by presenting as spontaneous news
any material which is staged or rehearsed.
d. They will identify people by race, creed, nationality, or prior
status only when relevant.
e. They will clearly label opinion and commentary.
f. They will promptly acknowledge and correct errors.
2). Strive to conduct themselves in a manner that protects them from
conflicts of interest, real or perceived. They will decline gifts or favors
which would influence or appear to influence their judgments.
3). Respect the dignity, privacy and well-being of people with whom
they deal.
4). Recognize the need to protect confidential sources. They will promise
confidentiality only with the intention of keeping that promise.
5). Respect everyone’s right to a fair trial.
6). Broadcast the private transmissions of other broadcasters only
with permission.
7). Actively encourage observance of the Code by all journalists, regardless
of membership in the Radio-Television News Directors Association.
Goodwin, and Smith (1994, p. 31) suggested that journalists could
move away from dealing with their ethical problems case by case by building
a system of ethics based on these principles:
1). Journalism should provide valid information, information that is
truthful and untainted by vested and special interests. Journalists have
to be independent searchers for truth.
2). As they gather and report the news, journalists must be fair and
compassionate in their treatment of people and events.
3). Journalists are not exempt from the ethical principle that
means are as important as ends, and both means and ends must be truthful
and honorable.
4). Journalists have to be honest to themselves, their news sources
and associates and, above all, the public. And a little humility would
not hurt. Arrogance has no place in a profession so dependent on credibility.
5). Journalists make a vital contribution to our democracy when they
monitor the activities of politicians and provide citizens with information
they need to know. Likewise, they are fulfilling a basic obligation to
the public when they shed light on the less obvious activities of business
and other areas of the private sector in which the public has a legitimate
interest.
6). Although the news media are business, they should be much more
than that. In payment for the special constitutionally protected privileges
they enjoy in the American system, the news media must be socially responsible
and strive to serve the public good. Profits are justifiable only if the
public is served by the highest quality of journalism that such profits
can afford.
7). Ethics needs constant attention. Journalists should continue serious
discussion of their ethical principles. Such discussions should help journalism
become a truly ethical profession. And isn’t it about time?
3. Personal judgment and freedom
Is pure objectivity possible? Are journalists able to report
news with a perfectly objective view? McDonald (1975, p.70) answered
that the reporter, the conventions of journalism, the forms and process
of the communications institutions, language, and the investigative and
interpretive functions of the reporter, all affect the objectivity of mass
communication. According to Lippmann, experience seems to show that the
reporter brings something to the scene which he later takes away from it.
A news story is the joint product of the knower and the known, in which
the role of the observer is always selective and usually creative.
The facts we see depend on where we are placed and the habits of our eyes
(McDonald, 1975, p. 70). What reporters select for attention, the weight
they put on the various elements, the kinds of questions they ask, are
all influenced by the personal history they bring to their work (McDonald,
1975,p.70).
Granted that it is impossible for journalists to report facts
objectively, they should not hesitate in reporting accurately and fairly,
and they must be free from bias.
On the contrary, Milton, Locke, Mill, and other philosophers who believe
in rationalism and natural rights believe in the “self-righting process
of truth” in the “free marketplace of ideas.” Libertarians think
that freedom of the press is more important than social responsibility.
However, even libertarians think that conscientious reporting is of the
utmost importance. That is, even journalists who believe they have no responsibilities
to other people, the social community, and the government cannot evade
their responsibility to their own consciences. Therefore, libertarians
forbid journalistic defamation, obscenity, indecency, and wartime sedition.
Some people contend that in a free press system, a journalist’s conscientious
personal judgment is more important than any other criteria, such as professionalism
and responsibility to community and society.
Socrates’ student, Plato, argued that good exists no matter how
a society might conduct itself. This suggests journalists must define their
own personal codes even though they might differ from current thought in
society. Aristotle, Plato’s student, focused on individual responsibility
for virtuous conduct (Fink, 1988, p.15).
Patterson and Wilkins (1994, p. 86-87) have identified several
criteria of a journalist’s individual conscientious judgment. They have
specified these loyalties arising from shared humanity:
- demonstrate respect for each person as an individual ;
- communicate honestly and truthfully with all persons;
- build a fairness that promotes the common good;
4. Professionalism
Truth is the ultimate goal. Objectivity in reporting the news
is another goal, which serves as the mark of an experienced professional.
It is a standard of performance toward which we strive.We honor those who
achieve it (Code of Ethics, Society of Professional Journalists,
Sigma Delta Chi, adopted 1926).
When the role you assume is a professional one, you add ethical
responsibilities. Philosophers claim that “ To belong to a profession is
traditionally to be held to certain standards of conduct that go beyond
the norm for others” (Lebacqz 1985, 32) Based on thirty years of study
of communications, Fink (1988, p. 60) suggests a journalist cannot build
an effective relationship of trust with readers or viewers without
professionalism characterized by reporting that is accurate, writing that
is honest and open, and by personal self-discipline and courage.
We intuitively sense that journalists have two central responsibilities
that are distinct because of the role journalists play in modern society.
First, they have a greater responsibility to tell the truth than most professions.
Second, journalists also seem to carry a somewhat greater obligation to
foster political activity than the average person (Patterson and Wilkins,
1994, p.83). Patterson and Wilkins have identified these loyalties arising
from professional practice (1994, p.86-87):
-fulfill the informational and entertainment mission of the media;
-understand your audience’s needs;
-strive to enhance professional development of self and others;
-avoid the abuse of power and position;
-conduct professional activities in ways that uphold or surpass the
ideals of virtue and competence;
5. Responsibility for community and society
Freedom carries concomitant obligations; and the press, which
enjoys a privileged position under our government, is obliged to be responsible
to society for carrying out certain essential functions of mass communication
in contemporary society (Peterson, 1973, p.74).
The social responsibility theory of the press has the above major
premise. The functions of the press under the social responsibility theory
are the same as those under libertarian theory: (1) servicing the political
system by providing information, discussion, and debate on public affairs;
(2) enlightening the public so as to make it capable of self-government;
(3) safeguarding the rights of the individual by serving as a watchdog
against government; (4) servicing the economic system, primarily by bringing
together the buyers and sellers of goods and services through the medium
of advertising; (5) providing entertainment: (6) maintaining its own financial
self-sufficiency so as to be free from the pressures of special interests
(Peterson, 1973 p.74).
The social responsibility theory accepts those functions. But
it is not enough to report the news truthfully and responsibly. The Hutchins
Commission report challenged the press to provide:
1. A truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the day’s events
in a context which gives them meaning.... It is no longer enough to report
the fact truthfully. It is now necessary to report the truth about the
fact.
2. A forum for the exchange of comment and criticism.
3. The projection of a representative picture of the constituent groups
in the society.
4. The presentation and clarification of the goals and values of society.
5. Full access to the day’s intelligence (A Free and Responsibility
Press: Report of the Commission on Freedom of the Press, pp.20-29).
Patterson and Wilkins (1994, p.86-87) also have developed several
criteria of media’s role in public life:
-serve as examples of open institutions where truth is
required;
-foster open discussion and debate;
-interpret your professional actions to readers and viewers;
-serve as a voice for the voiceless;
-serve as a mirror of society.
The report of the Hutchins Commission was debatable, and “its critics are correct that the social responsibility theory it spawned is not an adequate basis for a thorough system of news media ethics because it does not address enough of the ethical concerns journalists face. But most modern reporters and editors would find little to quibble with in the commission’s efforts to define goals for truth-telling by journalists. Today the commission’s principles still challenge American journalists to commit themselves to complete and thorough reporting and to make their reports truthful and socially responsible (Goodwin and Smith, 1994, p.19).”
6. Loyalty to corporation
Many news organizations write codes essentially to protect their
corporate image and to present precise ethical instructions for individual
journalists attempting to frame personal approaches to ethical issues.
“This corporate imperative includes the responsibility your editor or news
director has to perform journalistically in keeping with corporate guidelines.
News strategists set goals in such things as the desired “tone” and “image”
for a newspaper or news program. Often, these goals are designed to ensure
certain market segments -- readers, viewers, or advertisers -- are served
and that the newspaper or television news operation thus achieves success
in the marketplace (Fink, 1988, p.76).”
Thus, many news organizations decide their tone, policy, and guidelines.
Therefore, as employees of news organizations, reporters and editors are
expected to meet those standards for the news organizations where they
are work. Patterson and Wilkins have identified these loyalties arising
from employment
(1994, p.86-87):
-keep agreements and promises, operate within the framework of the
law, extend due process to all persons;
-do not squander your organization’s resources or your public trust;
-promote compassionate and humane professional relationships;
-foster policies that build a community of ethnic, gender and socio-economic
diversity;
-promote the right of all to be heard;
Many journalists, however, think the restrictions now in place at many newspapers intrude far too much into their private lives. Journalists contend that placing limits on their free speech is only a cosmetic effort to mask the fact that journalists have opinions (Goodwin and Smith, 1994, p. 86). Moreover, newspaper managers use conflict of interest as a justification for extending their authority over their employees and restricting journalists from obtaining the maximum economic benefits of their skills and talents (Goodwin and Smith, 1994, p. 99).
7. Methodology
The Q-method was chosen over other attitude measuring approaches
because of its capacity to examine a wide range of issues with a single
measuring device--the Q-sort. Because Q-methodology deals with the measurable
subjectivity of each individual, it is possible to measure the cognitions
among people according to the similarity of their attitudinal structures.
William Stephenson (1967, p. 26) contends that there are rich,
subjective, qualitative aspects of mind within all peolpe, and that these
“factors of the mind” are a valid dimension of scientific investigation.
In the Q-methodological perspective, typologies of people may be extracted
as factors, and these factors may serve as a guide to hypothesis formation.
Stephenson argues in favor of a small sample doctrine, using as few as
10 persons in his examples.
In Q-technique, the respondents’ models for themselves are based
on their own subjectivity, so there is no need to apply preconceived measuring
devices or scales that must be altered to fit the circumstances and may
be of doubtful validity.
We propose to throw away all such measurement. Yet we shall study
man’s attitudes, his thinking behavior, his personality, his social interaction,
his self, his psychoanalytic mechanisms, and all else objective to others
or subjective to himself; and we can do all this scientifically, without
using any formal scales or measuring instruments of any kind with which
psychology is familiar (Stephenson, 1975, p. 5).
8. The Q-Sample
The Q-population is created by drawing statements of opinion
from several sources. The sum of self-referent statements made by
individuals in all relevant social situations constitute a Q-population.
The Q-items; i.e. statements, can be obtained from two sources: literature
and interviews. For this study, Q-items were drawn from both sources.
First, interviews were conducted with 10 journalists. A total
of 85 statements were gathered from 10 interviews. Interviews with 10 journalists
were conducted during March 1997 in Columbia, Missouri. They were conducted
with journalists or students of the School of Journalism of the University
of Missouri-Columbia who have field-experience. Nondirective interviews
was used to encourage “the respondent to talk freely and fully” and to
create “a completely permissive atmosphere in which subjects are free to
express themselves without fear of disapproval, admonition, or dispute,
and without advice from the interviewer (Selltz, Wrightsman, and Cook,
1976, p. 321).”
Second, an extensive literature review was done in the construction
of the Q-sample, which is the statements used in the study. Thirty-eight
of the Q-items came from articles or books dealing with ethical criteria
for journalists. A total of 123 items were collected, then screened. Many
items were eliminated on the basis of duplication between items. Finally,
a Q-sample of 45 statements were selected from a variety of personal interviews
and literature.
9. Q-sorting
Q-sorting is how one “models” one’s opinions of feelings about
an issue or matter.
Q-sorting is limited in that it is concerned with matters of impression,
of opinion, judgment, value, belief and the like, and not with matters
of fact.
Subjects were given Q-sort statements, instructions, a grid and
a simple questionnaire to obtain demographic data. They were asked to read
a set of 45 opinion statements about the ethical criteria for objective
journalistic reports and indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement.
Each subject was instructed to begin the Q-sort by sorting the
items into three piles: one pile for those items that represented their
opinion on journalistic ethical criteria for objective reports (those they
agreed with); one pile for those items that they thought did not represent
their opinion on journalistic ethical criteria for objective reports (those
they disagreed with); and one pile for those items that they felt were
neutral, doubtful, ambiguous (those they neither agree nor disagree with).
Each subject was then asked to take each of the three piles and
further differentiate the statements into smaller piles that reflected
gradation of strength or valence of opinions. In this procedure, each subject
was instructed to sort according to a 11-point distribution scale. The
following 11-point, quasi-normal, forced-distribution scale was designed:
Weight
-5 -4 -3 -2
-1 0 1
2 3 4
5
No. of Items 2
3 4 4
6 7 6
4 4 3
2
10.The P-samples
One of the most salient characteristics of Q-methodology is the
use of small samples. Because the study did not intend to project results
on a population, a purposive sample of subjects was chosen. The r-sample
consisted of 30 journalists and journalism students.
11. Factor Interpretations
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Types
Source-oriented objectivist Ascetic utilitarian Civic journalist
N 13 12 5
Age 21 or less 30% 21 or less 50% 21 or less 100%
Gender Female: 69%
Male: 31% Female: 42%
Male: 58% Female: 80%
Male: 20%
Ethnicity Af.Am: 23%
As.Am: 8%
Cauc: 69% Af.Am: 8%
As.Am: 25%
Cauc: 67% Af.Am: 20%
As.Am: 0%
Cauc: 80%
Political Preference Liberal: 54% Conservative: 46% Liberal: 42%
Conservative: 58% Liberal: 100%
Conservative: 0%
Opinion on the freedom of the press Libertarian View: 23%
Social-Responsibility View:
77% Libertarian View: 42%
Social-Responsibility View: 58% Libertarian View: 100%
Social-Responsibility View: 0%
A major advantage of the Q-technique is its emphasis on individual
cognitive attributes as opposed to impersonal tests of categorization.
The abductive process of interpreting Q-factors is designed to use all
available information and insights to identify the hypothetical person
represented by the factor. In other words, if a logical explanation that
accounts for the particular distribution of the statements is found, then
that particular factor could be looked at as a person rather than a “group”
of persons.
Sorts from the 30 subjects were subjected to factor analysis,
producing three factors. After Varimax rotation and the elimination of
people with confounded or non-significant sorts, there were 13 people on
source-oriented objectivists, 12 people on ascetic utilitarians and 5 on
civic journalists. The Quanal program of analyzing the factors plotted
the relationships based on the information from the thirty Q-sorts. In
the correlation and principal components factoring phase of the process,
three factors were extracted. To enhance the views of the individual factors,
the factor matrix was subjected to varimax rotation (orthogonal) to produce
the simple structure matrix. The three eigenvalues, which are the sums
of factor’s square loadings, were 9.5999, 2.0645, and 1.9089.
The three factors extracted represented 45.24 percent of the
total variance. Factor 1 accounted for 70.73 percent of that variance with
a cluster of 13 people; Factor 2 had 15.21 percent with a cluster of 12
people; and Factor 3 had 14.06 percent with a cluster of 5 people. Ascetic
utilitarian was correlated .638 with source-oriented objectivist; all other
correlations between types were statistically non-significant.
Source-oriented objectivist: Journalist focusing on fair and
accurate news source
Source-oriented objectivist emphasizes fairness and accuracy in
journalistic reports. Also, in comparison with other types, journalistic
professionalism and loyalty to their corporation are major factors for
their ethical criteria. They are more society-oriented than ascetic utilitarians,
but more individual-oriented than civic journalists.
Nine of the 13 members in source-oriented objectivist (69%) are
female, and 4 members (31%) are male. Thirty percent of all members are
21 years old or less. Two seven-point semantic differential items, anchored
with liberal/conservative, libertarian view/social responsibility view
were used in order to ask subjects’ politcal preference and opinion on
the freedom of the press. There are nearly equal numbers of liberals (54%)
and conservatives (46%). Seventy-seven percent of all members have social-responsibility
views, and 23 percent have libertarian views on the freedom of the press.
“Journalists are supposed to be objective, not biased. They are
supposed to tell the public both sides of the story and let the public
decide what’s right or wrong,” one wrote. “I agree with statement #5 because,
to me, being fair and truthful should be the basis for any career for any
person. You have to be fair to yourself, your employer, etc.,” wrote another.
“Though journalists are part of the public, their profession requires them
to realize a greater responsibility to truth,” “I like #5 because the concept
of fairness is wide enough to include much of what I think is important,”
wrote an other subject.
Source-oriented objectivist believes statement #5 “journalists
should report the news fairly” (z=2.13), statement #3 “journalists should
treat others the way they would want to be treated” (z=2.02), statement
#8 “journalists must obtain information ethically” (z=1.84), and statement
#19 “journalists should make prompt and complete correction of their errors”(z=1.59)
are the most important ethical criteria for journalists. These statements
are all related to fair and accurate news sources and reporting.
The opinions that differed the most between source-oriented objectivist
and ascetic utilitarian are on statement #38 “journalists should
try to promote the development of their organization” (difference of z-score,
3.084 - source-oriented objectivist, 2.022, and ascetic utilitarians, -1.062),
and statement #26 “journalists should include in their decisions efforts
to do what will benefit society as a whole” (difference of z-score, 1.289
- source-oriented objectivist, 0.562 and ascetic utilitarian,-0.728). These
results tell us that source-oriented objectivist is more society-oriented
than ascetic utilitarian.
The forty-five statements were divided into four categories:
category I - statements on personal judgment (#1 to #14), category II -
statements on professionalism (#15 to #26), category III - statements on
serving the community and society (#27 to #39), and category IV - statements
on loyalty to the corporation (#40 to #48). Source-oriented objectivists
found 14 statements unimportant: 6 in category III, 5 in category I, 2
in category IV, and 1 in category II. The results tell us that journalistic
professionalism and loyalty to their corporation are major ethical considerations.
Ascetic utilitarian: Journalist focusing on journalist’s ethical
action as an individual
Ascetic utilitarians believe that conscientious action as an individual
is the most important criterion for journalistic ethics. They believe that
journalists are also human beings, therefore, journalists have to act on
fundamental human virtues and get away from vices. Also, in comparison
with the other two types, they insist that journalists’ personal judgments
toward other people are major factors for their ethical criteria. So, they
have an individual, instead of a collectivist, view of human society. As
humanists, journalists have to respect their interviewers or subjects.
Five of the 12 members in ascetic utilitarians (42%) are female
and 7 members (58%) are male. Fifty percent of all members are 21 years
old or less. Forty-two percent of ascetic utilitarians are liberals, and
58 percent are conservatives. Forty-two percent of all members have libertarian
views, and 58 percent have social-responsibility views on the freedom of
the press.
“I think statement #3, journalists should treat others the way
they would want to be treated, is really a good rule for all people, although
it is rarely attainable. Journalists would work well if they applied #3
to their careers.” one wrote. “I believe that ultimately the pursuit of
truth is the most important function of a journalist, and I believe journalists
have to gather information truthfully from everyone who is in stories,”
wrote another. “The duty of journalists is providing the public with the
truth. To do so, impartial attitudes and fairness is of utmost necessity.
Selfishness should be avoided,” wrote another subject.
Ascetic utilitarian regards statement #1 “journalists have to
communicate truthfully with all persons” (z=1.82), statement #4 “journalists
have to respect each person as an individual” (z=1.62), statement #6 “journalists
should guard against invading a person’s right to privacy” (z=1.21), and
statement #21 “journalists should avoid the abuse of power and position”
(z=1.10) as the most important journalistic ethical criteria. These statements
are all related to conscientious action as an individual.
The opinions that differ most between ascetic utilitarian and
civic journalist are about statement #1 “journalists have to communicate
truthfully with all persons” (difference of z-score, 3.037 - ascetic utilitarian,
1.815, and civic journalist, -1.221), statement #6 “journalists should
guard against invading a person’s right to privacy” (difference of z-score,
2.619 - ascetic utilitarian, 1.209 and civic journalist,-1.410), and statement
#4 “journalists have to respect each person as an individual” (difference
of z-score, 1.490 - ascetic utilitarian, 1.620 and civic journalist, 0.130).
It tells us that ascetic utilitarian is more individual-oriented than civic
journalist.
Ascetic utilitarians found 14 statements unimportant: 5 in category
II, 4 in category IV, 4 in category III, and 1 in category I. The results
tell us that personal judgment is a major ethical consideration.
Civic journalist: Journalist focusing on journalistic duty for
the public society
Civic journalists believe that journalists should include efforts
to benefit society as a whole in their decisions. Also, they insist that
journalists should serve as common citizens for the society. Civic journalist
is the most society-oriented.
Four of the 5 members in civic journalists (80%) are female,
21 years old or less, and with libertarian views on the freedom of the
press, and liberals in terms of their political preference.
“Because journalists are common citizens, they are affected by
the same things in their community,” one wrote. “Journalists should represent
society, therefore, they should serve as normal citizens for the society,”
“journalists need to know what is newsworthy and get it out to the public,”
“journalists should know the public agenda,” wrote other subjects.
Civic journalist regards statement # 25 “journalists should know
the public agenda” (z=1.64), statement #9 “journalists should not judge
others in a story; rather, the reader should be allowed a space at the
writer’s table to judge the various arguments in a story” (z=1.49), and
statement #31 “journalists should serve as normal citizens for the society”
(z=1.21) as the most important ethical criteria for journalists. These
statements are all related to the journalist’s obligation to society.
The opinions that differed the most between civic journalist
and source-oriented objectivist are statement #6 “journalists should guard
against invading a person’s right to privacy” (difference of z-score, 2.451
- source-oriented objectivist, 1.040, and civic journalist, -1.410), and
statement #3 “journalists should treat others the way they would want to
be treated” (difference of z-score, 2.397 - source-oriented objectivist,
2.022 and civic journalist,-0.375). It tells us that civic journalist is
more society-oriented than source-oriented objectivist.
Civic journalists found 16 statements unimportant: 6 in
category I, 4 in category II, 3 in category IV, and 3 in category III.
The results tell us that journalistic duty regarding society is major factor
for their ethical criteria.
Based upon the consensus items and average z-scores, all three
Types have similar opinions on categories II and IV, and different thoughts
on categories I and III.
12. Discussion and Conclusion
Based upon Q-methodology, three journalistic types concerning
the criteria for ethical reporting were found.
Source-oriented objectivists emphasize fairness and accuracy
in journalistic reports. They believe that journalists should obtain information
ethically and report the news fairly. They also thought that journalists
should make prompt and complete correction of their errors. They considered
professionalism and loyalty to their corporation as the major ethical factors.
Ascetic utilitarians believe that conscientious action as an
individual is the most important ethical criterion for journalists. Journalists,
they believe, are also human beings, therefore, journalists have to act
on fundamental human virtues and get away from vices. Journalists’ personal
judgments toward other people are important factors for their ethical criteria.
That is, they believe that journalists have to communicate truthfully with
all persons and respect their interviewers or subjects. Important journalistic
ethics are to guard against invading a person’s right to privacy and avoid
abusing power and position.
Civic journalists believe that journalists should include efforts
to benefit society as a whole in their decisions. Also, they insist that
journalists should serve as normal citizens for the society. As civic journalists,
they believe that journalists should know the public agenda and not judge
others in a story; rather, the reader should be allowed a space at the
writer’s table to judge the various arguments in a story.
Many of the issues concerning the practice of journalism oscillate
between the ideas of individual freedom of expression and the responsibility
of the journalist to society. Three types of journalists, who were derived
from this study, all focused upon journalists’ responsibilities instead
of their rights, because they were asked on their ethical duties more than
their freedom of the press. The ideas stressed by civic journalists from
this study have similarities with the issues of civic journalism, also
known as public journalism, that is being hotly debated today. Civic journalism
broadens the concept of journalistic social responsibility into a more
active role- to help public life go well, to “reconstitute” the public,
and promote citizen engagement and dialogue. Its purpose is to help revive
civic society (Rosen, 1994). Virginia Dodge Fielder of Knight-Ridder Inc.
argues that civic journalism is journalism that treats readers as citizens,
not just as an audience “but as a public, actors in public life.” Civic
journalists take an active role in initiating dialogue among themselves,
the public and leaders about issues of public concern and attempt to “advance
public inquiry, increase understanding and spur public participation to
urge solutions (Lambeth and Craig, 1994).” Merritt (1995) argues that journalists
can help “revitalize public life and restore the core importance” to the
journalistic profession by “becoming fair-minded participants in public
life rather than detached observers.”
Ethics concerned with criteria of what is morally right and wrong.
It includes the formulation of moral rules that have direct implications
for what human actions, institutions, and moral facts should be like (Encyclopedia
Britannica, 1994-1997).
Human actions, institutions, and moral facts have been the three
pronged mechanism to understand human ethics for many centuries. We can
now return to our first major question: What types of journalistic attitudes
are there concerning the criteria for ethical reports? Based upon Q-methodology,
three types emerge; source-oriented objectivists, ascetic utilitarians
and civic journalists. Source-oriented objectivists emphasize the moral
facts for journalistic ethics. Ascetic utilitarians regard human action
as the most important journalistic ethical criterion and civic journalists
focused on their efforts to benefit society. It does not seem to be a mere
coincidence that types of journalistic mind for ethical reports extracted
from the similarity of human attitudinal structures are identical with
the traditional categories-human actions, society and moral facts- which
have been accepted in judging the basic moral standards of human beings.
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Appendix
Q-statements
1. Journalist have to communicate truthfully with all persons.
2. Journalists should not let selfish motives direct their work.
3. Journalists should treat others the way they would want to
be treated.
4. Journalists have to respect each person as an individual.
5. Journalists should report the news fairly
6. Journalists should guard against invading a person’s right
to privacy.
7. Journalists can create working definitions of accuracy, and
fairness, considering each as it pertains to interviewing, balancing a
story, and writing the story.
8. Journalists must obtain information ethically.
9. Journalists should not judge others in a story; rather, the
reader should be allowed “a space at the writer’s table” to judge the various
arguments in a story.
10.Journalist’s freedom of the press is more important than their social
responsibility.
11.Journalists should strive for “the freedom of the press” which is
the supreme and absolute worth for the liberal society.
12.Journalists’ responsibility to their conscience is more important
than any other responsibilities to other people, or the social community.
13.Journalists should safeguard the rights of the individual by serving
as a watchdog against government.
14.Journalists have a greater responsibility to tell the truth than
most professions.
15.Journalists have to conduct professional activities in ways that
uphold or surpass the ideals of virtue and competence.
16.Journalists should know what is newsworthy beyond the public’s agenda.
17.Journalists should provide full access to the day’s intelligence.
18.Journalists acknowledge the newsman’s ethic of protecting confidential
sources of information.
19.Journalists should make prompt and complete correction of their
errors.
20.Journalists should clearly label opinion and commentary.
21.Journalists should avoid the abuse of power and position.
22.Journalists should interpret their professional actions to readers
and viewers.
23.Journalists should not loose personal credibility for their professionalism.
24.Journalists should consider the consequences of their story.
25.Journalists should know the public agenda.
26.Journalists should include in their decisions efforts to do what
will benefit society as a whole.
27.Journalists should be willing to discuss and justify their decisions
to their colleagues and the public.
28.Journalists should not be eroded by other legitimate goals.
29.Journalists should present and clarify the goals and values of society.
30.Journalists should serve their state or government.
31.Journalists should serve as normal citizens for the society.
32.Journalists should not be eroded by the interest of being a good
corporate citizen.
33. Holding public office, and service in community organizations should
be avoided if it compromises the integrity of journalists and their employers.
34.Journalists should serve as examples of open institutions where
truth is required.
35.Journalists should not be eroded by a quest for economic gain.
36.Journalists should not be eroded by the desire to be competitive
in the marketplace.
37.Although the news media are business-oriented, journalists should
be much more than that.
38.Journalists should try to promote the development of their organization.
39.Journalists have to give their loyalty to the corporation.
40.Journalists must weigh their obligations against the impact of affiliation
with causes or organizations.
41.Journalists should not be eroded by other legitimate goals such
as the concern for their own employees.
42.Secondary employment should be avoided if it compromises the integrity
of journalists and their employers.
43.Political involvement should be avoided if it compromises the integrity
of journalists and their employers.
44.Journalists should not squander their organization’s resources.
45.Journalists should not abuse their organization’s credibility.
Table 2. Loadings of Varimax Rotated Factor Analysis of Journalists
Variables (Journalists and Journalism Students)
FactorI
FactorII
FactorIII
1 0.289
0.195 -0.031
2 0.711
-0.153
0.140
3 0.569
0.343
0.043
4 0.668
0.186 -0.182
5 0.564
-0.291 -0.014
6 0.125
-0.022
0.444
7 0.517
0.044
0.693
8 0.630
0.249 -0.079
9 0.464
0.133 -0.372
10 0.268
0.044
0.489
11 0.511
-0.120
0.204
12 0.516
0.259 -0.345
13 0.618
0.111
0.143
14 0.524
0.446
0.159
15 0.737
-0.292
0.014
16 0.307
0.302
0.332
17 0.731
-0.107 -0.104
18 0.674
0.207 -0.198
19 0.655
0.198 -0.299
20 0.758
0.297
0.105
21 0.582
-0.164 -0.042
22 0.354
-0.244
0.299
23 0.323
0.317
0.235
24 0.502
0.151 -0.315
25 0.609
-0.309
0.102
26 0.734
0.158 -0.066
27 0.326
-0.440 -0.110
28 0.729
-0.358 -0.204
29 0.621
-0.456 -0.085
30 0.625
-0.414
0.052
Eigen values
9.5999
2.0645
1.9089
Total Variance
32%
6.8%
6.3%
Variance within 3 Fcts
70%
15.21%
14.06%
Table 3. Complete Array of Statements, Ranked by the Type of Journalists and Journalism Students
No. Statements
Type’s Z scores
Type
I II
III
1. Journalist have to communicate truthfully with all persons. 0.7 1.8 -1.2
2. Journalists should not let selfish motives direct their work. 1.2 0.9 0.9
3. Journalists should treat others the way
2.0 -1.1
-0.4
they would want to be treated.
4. Journalists have to respect each person as an individual. 0.7 1.6 0.1
5. Journalists should report the news fairly 2.1 2.4 1.1
6. Journalists should guard against invading
1.0 1.2
-1.4
a person’s right to privacy.
7. Journalists can create working definitions of accuracy,
-0.6 -0.5
-0.2
and fairness, considering each as it
pertains to interviewing,
balancing a story, and writing the story.
8. Journalists must obtain information ethically.
1.8 0.4
-0.4
9. Journalists should not judge others in a story; rather,
-0.0 0.8
1.6
the reader should be allowed “a space
at the writer’s table”
to judge the various arguments in a
story.
10.Journalist’s freedom of the press is more important than
-2.3 -1.3
-1.2
their social responsibility.
11.Journalists should strive for “the freedom of the press”
-1.1 -0.8
1.0
which is the supreme and absolute worth
for the liberal society.
12.Journalists’ responsibility to their conscience is more
-1.4 -1.7
-0.7
important than any other responsibilities
to other people,
or the social community.
13.Journalists should safeguard the rights of the individual
-0.4 1.0
0.5
by serving as a watchdog against government.
14.Journalists have a greater responsibility to tell the truth
0.8 0.3
-0.9
than most professions.
15.Journalists have to conduct professional activities in ways
-0.1 0.4
-0.7
that uphold or surpass the ideals of
virtue and competence.
16.Journalists should know what is newsworthy
-0.5 -0.5
1.0
beyond the public’s agenda.
No. Statements
Type’s Z scores
Type
I II
III
17.Journalists should provide full access to the day’s intelligence. -0.3 -0.3 0.0
18.Journalists acknowledge the newsman’s ethic of
0.1 0.7
-0.1
protecting confidential sources of information.
19.Journalists should make prompt and complete
1.6 1.0
1.7
correction of their errors.
20.Journalists should clearly label opinion and commentary. 0.5 0.1 1.1
21.Journalists should avoid the abuse of power and position. 1.0 1.1 1.3
22.Journalists should interpret their professional actions
-0.8 -0.9
-0.6
to readers and viewers.
23.Journalists should not loose personal credibility
0.0 0.2
-1.0
for their professionalism.
24.Journalists should consider the consequences of their story. 0.4 0.1 1.7
25.Journalists should know the public agenda. 0.2 -0.0 1.6
26.Journalists should include in their decisions efforts
0.6 -0.7
0.4
to do what will benefit society as a
whole.
27.Journalists should be willing to discuss and justify
1.1 0.5
1.2
their decisions to their colleagues
and the public.
28.Journalists should not be eroded by other legitimate goals. -1.1 -0.6 -0.6
29.Journalists should present and clarify the goals
-0.3 -1.4
-1.8
and values of society.
30.Journalists should serve their state or government. -1.5 -2.1 -1.9
31.Journalists should serve as normal citizens for the society. -0.9 -0.9 1.5
32.Journalists should not be eroded by the interest
-1.1 -0.1
-0.1
of being a good corporate citizen.
33. Holding public office, and service in community
-0.1
0.3 -0.1
organizations should be avoided
if it compromises
the integrity of journalists and
their employers.
34.Journalists should serve as examples of open institutions
0.6 0.8
-0.3
where truth is required.
35.Journalists should not be eroded by a quest
-0.5 0.9
0.2
for economic gain.
No. Statements
Type’s Z scores
Type
I II
III
36.Journalists should not be eroded by the desire
-1.4
0.3 -0.7
to be competitive in the marketplace.
37.Although the news media are business-oriented,
-0.1 0.5
-0.3
journalists should be much more than
that.
38.Journalists should try to promote the development
0.1 -1.4
0.3
of their organization.
39.Journalists have to give their loyalty to the corporation. -1.4 -2.2 -1.9
40.Journalists must weigh their obligations against the impact
-0.1 -0.3
-0.5
of affiliation with causes or organizations.
41.Journalists should not be eroded by other legitimate goals
-1.6 -0.9
-0.7
such as the concern for their own employees.
42.Secondary employment should be avoided if it compromises
-0.2 -0.4
-0.9
the integrity of journalists and their
employers.
43.Political involvement should be avoided if it compromises
-0.0 0.3
0.3
the integrity of journalists and their
employers.
44.Journalists should not squander their organization’s resources. 0.4 -0.1 -0.0
45.Journalists should not abuse their organization’s credibility.
0.8 0.6
1.0